Franklin Delano Roosevelt and His Allies Free Essays

FDR Research Notes * The Jews Standpoint * The Debates never end to the thinking of why the 6 million Jews were not spared by the US Government * The Jews had just taken substantial fire, and now their voice can't be heard * In 1942, as subtleties of Hitler’s Final Solution arrived at the Allies, it was hard for the general population and numerous administration authorities to get a handle on the degree and noteworthiness of the Nazis’ efficient, automated slaughtering. * On December seventeenth, 1942, the US joined 10 other Allied governments in giving a grave open statement denouncing Nazi Germany’s â€Å"bestial strategy of cutthroat extermination† of the Jews. Franklin Delano Roosevelt t accepted that the surest method to stop the slaughtering of honest regular citizens was to vanquish Hitler’s Germany as fast and conclusively as could reasonably be expected. We will compose a custom paper test on Franklin Delano Roosevelt and His Allies or on the other hand any comparative theme just for you Request Now * Assessment of Roosevelt’s job during the Holocaust is made troublesome by the general absence of correspondence. * Roosevelt and Churchill decided not to single out German abuse and mass homicide of the European Jews as a key focal point of the contention, wanting to allude as a rule to the point of completion the abuse and murder of regular people under Axis rule. From the American Standpoint * Most Americans as of now were ignorant regarding World War II because of the Government’s president, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, by our 32nd president not educating us on numerous things, may have quite recently had forestalled the second Civil War in history * The President didn't likewise illuminate numerous administration authorities because of the germination of the news at that point. * The President likewise had numerous inside and out discussions with the British Prime Minister to ensure that the Allies can absolutely win this war. The President is additionally reminded by the British Prime Minister to not overlook the lives that were lost during this World War and furthermore to spare the rest * Once the World War was at long last gaining some ground with the 101st Airborne, the uproars started. * The Americans were not intrigued with the government’s president and the authorities could just say, â€Å"Do not lose confidence in the country we lie in, the United States of America. † * The Americans did at long last go to a concurrence with the circumstance, and that is, â€Å"try harder. † * The Other Allies The 3 significant partners, or known as â€Å"The Big Three†, are Joseph Stalin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill * Joseph Stalin as of now during WWII was responsible for the Soviet Russian’s, which have been as of late deceived by Nazi Germany. * Franklin Delano Roosevelt right now during WWII was accountable for the United States of America, and has stayed quiet from the Nation that can neve r be seen. * Winston Churchill as of now during WWII was responsible for the British Commonwealth and has numerous inquiries on why FDR had pulled out of safeguarding a large number of Jews. Soviet Russia (WWII) * The man with the heart for the blend of popular government and socialism. Joseph Stalin was the Soviet Union pioneer until his passing in 1953. * In August 1939, the Union had gone into a non-hostility settlement with Nazi Germany that was abused in 1941 and the Union was being assaulted by Nazi Germany. * After the catch of Berlin in 1945, Soviet Union turned into the 1 of the 2 Superpowers with the Allies (the other being the United States of America. ) * The British Commonwealth Winston Churchill, Born on November 30th, 1874 and Died on January 24th, 1965 * The one of only a handful barely any head administrators to really serve twice as the leader. * Fought in WWII and had a generally excellent relationship with FDR and was essentially the supplier of Ammo and supplies to the US during the hour of Nazi Germany. * When Hitler attacked the USSR, Winston broadly stated, â€Å"If Hitler attacked heck, I would at any rate make a good reference to the Devil in the House of Commons. † * Franklin Delano Roosevelt * Born January 30, 1882 †April 12, 1945 Was engaged with the Holocaust and was additionally banded together with the USSR and the British * FDR was not getting ready to spare the Jews at any point in the near future not due to their race, but since of the costs. FDR needed to ensure that Allies win this War and do it with as meager cash as could be expected under the circumstances. * FDR was being provided by his old buddy, Winston Churchill, while the Russian Joseph Stalin, gave experimentation with the goal that the Allies could be unmistakably more ahead than the Axis (despite the fact that we were 2 years behind the Airplane)† Bibliography The most effective method to refer to Franklin Delano Roosevelt and His Allies, Essay models

Hydrogen bonds are extremely strong bonds which jo Essay Example For Students

Hydrogen bonds are very solid bonds which jo Essay in particles of moderately little mass. This idiosyncrasy makes the one of a kind properties related with substances with hydrogen holding, particularly in H20. In many intensifies, the extremity of its components negligibly affects the dipole powers which associate them. In any case, when hydrogen bonds to a little and profoundly electronegative iota, for example, N, O, or F, the distinction in electronegativity between the iotas makes the mutual electrons partner less with the hydrogen. Electrons, which typically circle about both reinforced iotas, are more pulled in to the core of the N, O, or F, than to the proton of the hydrogen molecule. Accordingly, the hydrogen iota basically loses its electron cloud and accept the properties of a solitary proton. This permits it to get a couple of unshared electrons from another close by molecule of N, O, or F. Hydrogen holding can just happen with the three referenced particles on the grounds that their electronegativity is incredible enoug h to pull in the hydrogen electron. All the more significantly, the little hydrogen iota and little nuclear radii of the others permit the unshared electrons to come near the hydrogen particle. In bigger particles, as the unshared electrons endeavored to bond with the hydrogen, they would be repulsed by the electrons of the iota on the opposite side of the hydrogen.As an aftereffect of the disassociation of its electron and capacity to bond with two extremely electronegative molecules, hydrogen bonds are one of the most grounded dipole powers, (however not so solid as covalent bonds). As a result of the solid bonds, the breaking points of hydrogen-reinforced substances are a lot higher than the normal breaking points decided through molar mass patterns. More vitality is expected to break a hydrogen bond, raising the warmth of vaporization. In water, the hydrogen bond adds to a large number of its one of a kind properties. The high warmth of vaporization makes water be an in its fluid or strong state under most conditions. Since life on earth began in fluid water, it was fundamental for water to stay in this state for most of the water cycle. Due to this trouble in breaking bonds associating H20 particles, water additionally has a high explicit warmth, 4.184 J/g C . This permits water to not be influenced by slight temperature changes, and makes it moderate the atmosphere, cooling during the hot days, and warming the air during the chilly night. It is thus that abandons experience such sensational temperature boundaries, and islands keep up a consistent all year atmosphere. Likewise significant, is the impact of hydrogen bonds on ice. At the point when water freezes, the O particles are attached to four hydrogens: two covalent bonds and two hydrogen bonds to other H20 atoms. The covalent bonds are shorter than the hydro gen bond, making the particles bond in hexagonal gems with void space within. This causes the quirk of water wherein its solidified state is less thick than its strong state. Such a property makes lakes and waterways freeze starting from the top, a significant thought in the development of life. At the point when lakes solidified, early stage living beings could in any case harp on the floor, permitting them to make due through the winters.

Burnside, Ambrose Everett

Burnside, Ambrose Everett Burnside, Ambrose Everett, 1824â€"81, Union general in the U.S. Civil War, b. Liberty, Ind. He saw brief service in the Mexican War and remained in the army until 1853, when he entered business in Rhode Island. In the Civil War, Burnside commanded a brigade at the first battle of Bull Run and was made (Aug., 1861) a brigadier general of volunteers. His expedition to the North Carolina coast (1862), resulting in the capture of Roanoke Island, New Bern, Beaufort, and Fort Macon, won him a major generalcy and much prestige. He commanded under G. B. McClellan in the Antietam campaign and shortly afterward succeeded that general in command of the Army of the Potomac. After a costly defeat at the battle of Fredericksburg (see Fredericksburg, battle of ) in Dec., 1862, Burnside asked President Lincoln either to sustain him in dismissing Joseph Hooker and several other generals who opposed his plans, or to remove Burnside himself. Lincoln relieved him in favor of Joseph Hooker. As co mmander of the Dept. of the Ohio (Mar.â€"Dec., 1863), he occupied E Tennessee, took Knoxville, and repulsed James Longstreet's attempt to recapture the town. In 1864 he commanded under generals Meade and Grant in Virginia. Held partially responsible for the fiasco at Petersburg , he was relieved. Burnside was elected governor of Rhode Island in 1866 and was reelected in 1867 and 1868. From 1875 to his death he was a U.S. Senator. He originated the fashion of wearing long side whiskers, thus the term burnsides or sideburns. See biography by B. P. Poore (1882); K. P. Williams, Lincoln Finds a General (Vol. II, 1950). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: U.S. History: Biographies

Life Before to Life Now - 1208 Words

Running Head: Life Before To Life Now Life Before To Life Now Michelle Porter PSY 202 November 8, 2010 LIFE Life Before To Life Now As I continue to reevaluate my life and all that I had dreamed and hoped for myself when I reach my mid thirties, I did not think I would be still in school trying to get an education. Reflecting back on my past experiences and decisions I made I would have done a lot of things different. Life seems to bring about maturity, perseverance and determination in people and I believe at this point in my life I am determined to succeed because I have been battling a college degree on and off for the past 15years. Pretty sad to admit but reality has finally set in and I have decided that†¦show more content†¦My kids are very active in the church and community involvement along with sporting activities and games on the weekends. I could not imagine my life any different right now! Through our weekly discussion of Adult Development and studying Erik Erickson’s theories of development, allowed me to gain great insight to human development. In our reading Erik points out t hat â€Å"adults seek to accomplish goals that make them feel they have made a difference in the world. This is the payoff stage in which we can use the personality that we’ve developed to achieve our occupational, social and personal goals. We gain a sense of fulfillment from those accomplishments but also seek additional satisfaction through mentoring younger generations.† (Witt Mossler, 2010, p 9). This is truly where I am in my life right now. Growing up as a child I always dreamed of becoming a doctor one day. As I got older and became a part of numerous debate teams, student government associations groups and community advisory boards, my interest changed to law school. When I became a wife and a mother, I developed the nurturing spirit and I wanted to become a nurse. Looking back at where I was and where I am now I am seeking career satisfaction in my life. I am struggling with generatively versus stagnation. I do not feel I am useful in my career achievement and that is why I am seeking to better myShow MoreRelatedLife Is Better For Teenagers Now Than It Has Ever Been Before1403 Words   |  6 Pages‘Life is better for teenagers now than it has ever been before.’ Do you agree? Introduction: How many times have you heard the terms ‘worst generation’, ‘kids these days’ or ‘back in my day’ used by the older groups? These are some derogatory terms used by older generations to describe the youths and younger generations of our world today. Many members of the older generation believe that teenagers today are juveniles and delinquents compared to teenagers in the past. Despite all this many youthsRead MoreComparison Contrast Essay: Motherhood: My Life Now796 Words   |  4 Pagescareer, and most importantly my social life. Then on May of 2008 my favorite quote was about to become a quick realization of what I could expect and I would have a new understanding because that’s when I found out I was pregnant. My life was about to change and I would now look back and reminisce how my life was before having a baby, and now see how much more enriched my life is now after my unexpected pregnancy. Before I became a mother my everyday life consisted of school Monday through FridayRead MoreAncient Futures of Ladakh1333 Words   |  6 Pagesdefined as a specific state of growth or advancement. Helen Norberg-Hodge would view it as a western way of life, which brings forth destruction of family values and a change in the traditional way of life as seen in her documentary Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. Ladakh was an isolated Himalayan country which followed the Tibetan way of life. They had a sustainable traditional way of life, and didn’t depend on the western view that money was what made you happy. They knew not of poverty, diseasesRead MoreEssay on Elegy for Himself788 Words   |  4 Pageseven thirty when he was executed and his bitterness at his life ending almost before it is begun can be seen. And now I die and now I am but made: He was sentenced to death for being part of a Catholic plot to murder Elizabeth. He wrote this poem just three days before he was to meet with death. The tone of Tichbornes poem is one of regret and sorrow that his life is being ended before its time and that what is left of his life will be very unpleasant. In Elegy For Himself we can tellRead MoreThe American Dream: Freedom, Hard Work Guarantees Success and Less Racism868 Words   |  4 Pageson doors to restaurants forbidding different races to eat there. Is that the case now? Are there still dying people lying on the cold ground with no food or families? Do people see horrific scenes of men and women working in fields all day? Do families still have to witness an African American get up and move to the back of a bus for a Caucasian? No, that is not the case anymore. America is a better country now. In source E it says, â€Å"The chair in Washington sat had a sun, and the question wasRead MoreAnalysis Of The Story Of An Hour By Louise Mallard862 Words   |  4 Pages years, or decades before a person can fully cope with the death. There are also various ways to handle the stress that comes along with it, but positive reactions are uncommon. Thus, Mrs. Mallard does not find it difficult to face life after her husband’s death. Therefore, in Chopin’s â€Å"The Story of An Hour,† Louise Mallard’s positive reaction to the news of her husband’s death is because she is free from co-dependency; she can make her own decisions, and envisions a new life. However, Mrs. MallardRead MoreReflection Essay1638 Words   |  7 Pagesin my life. During the first week of this class, it was my first time to express myself out by writing my opinions and perspectives to everyone. The change began when I wrote about Steve’s Job Speech. He had a very creative mind, made a significant difference, and impact in everyone’s life. He inspired me in many ways, he had ups and downs in his life, but never lost hope in achieving his dreams. Thus, life before was different than now, they did not have the technology that we have now, yet heRead MoreJane Eyre Critical Analysis Essay1011 Words   |  5 Pagesone choice after another that shows her growing decisiveness. Unlike what Jane would’ve done in the beginning of Jane Eyre, Jane now makes choices that reflect her own desires without being tempted by others. Before, Jane always wanted to impress St John by doing every action that he demanded. She expressed that, â€Å"When he said†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢do this,’ I did it† (459). However, now Jane says no to St John on multiple occasions when she is asked to marry him, even though he threatens her relationship with GodRead MoreShould Children Vaccinations Be Mandatory?1492 Words   |  6 Pageshowever, is different. Technology is more advanced than ever, and people are living longer than ever before. Life expectancy in the United States has gone up by more than 30 years in the last decades. It isn’t by luck that many diseases now cease to exist, but through extensive studies, and research. The medical field is at the height of its studies with more people being cured of diseases than ever before. Most of this is to the credit of doctors and scientists developing vaccinations that help the bodyRead MoreEssay on Nature in Shakespeares Sonnets1731 Words   |  7 Pagesthe speaker uses imagery and metaphors from nature to describe man’s life cycle. While reading the Sonnets, it may seem at first that the main point of the Sonnets is that life’s purpose is to reproduce. However, after reading the fa ir youth Sonnets, it becomes clear that imagery from nature is used to prove that death is inevitable and should be accepted. The fair youth Sonnets are ordered in a specific way to resemble the life cycle of a man. As the Sonnets progress the overall themes of the sonnets

Pediatric Cancer Essay examples - 1417 Words

Cancer is a word which evokes many different images and emotions. Nothing in this world can prepare a person for the utter devastation of finding out someone has been diagnosed with cancer, especially when this person is a child. Over the past twenty five years the amount of research and the survival rate for children suffering with cancer have increased dramatically. Despite these successes, the funding for new research necessary to keep these children alive and healthy is miniscule and too dependent on short term grants. Of the billions of dollars spent each year on cancer treatments and research less than a third is contributed to researching pediatric cancer. Given the media focus on adult cancers, research for pediatric cancer is†¦show more content†¦This research is what provides hope for a cancer free future. When it comes to cancer, so much of the world’s knowledge is based on statistics. For example, each day forty-six children, or more than two full classrooms of kids, are diagnosed with cancer and one out of every three hundred thirty people will develop cancer before the age of twenty. The simplest and most important of these statistics is this, â€Å"Cancer is the number one cause of death by disease in children.† Pediatric cancer takes the lives of more people than the number of children who die from asthma, diabetes, cystic fibrosis and pediatric AIDS combined! About one thousand three hundred and eighty children are expected to die from cancer this year alone. Although the cure rate of children with cancer is steadily increasing for most childhood cancers over the past five years, the number of children who will die is overwhelming and unacceptable. Billions of dollars are spent each year on cancer treatment, but studies and drug development for pediatric cancer remains underfunded. â€Å"Research for children with cancer lags nearly two decades behind their adult counterparts.† New drugs and treatments are rarely funded because many private companies are not able to profit from them. Drug companies are also often reluctant to fund or develop products solely for pediatric cancer because of the liability risk they take when testing drugs on children. Due to the small amount of companies willingShow MoreRelatedPediatric Cancer Is A Scary Concept1874 Words   |  8 Pages Pediatric Cancer is a scary concept. We think as a society that children are innocent and should not have to go through such a deadly and scary adult disease. Unfortunately that is not true. Cancer has no limits or prejudices on what the age, sex, or race of its victim will be. With this paper I want to discuss multiple topics about pediatric cancer . First the statistics, then the treatment options, finally the treatment/prognosis for the family as a whole and not just the patient. There areRead MoreA Research Study On Pediatric Cancer1622 Words   |  7 Pagesdiagnosed with cancer each year. Of those 1,960 will die of the disease in the United States. Nobody should have to go through this in their life time, let alone an infant or child. Kids are suffering each and every second of their lives trying to fight the unbearable, frightening, terrible disease. For many, many years, doctors, researchers and nurses have been working to find cures for pediatric cancers. Progress has been made in treating some cancers but there are still many pediatric cancers, whichRead More Pediatric Cancer Patient Care Essay1368 Words   |  6 PagesThe word â€Å"cancer† is usually perceived by many people in society as a very intimidating disease. This is due to the fact that as a society we either had a family member or someone close to us suffers from it. 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As a result of this treatment the chances of survival for children suffering from pediatric cancer has increased around 80Read MorePediatric Cancer Essay1286 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The diagnosis of cancer during childhood and adolescence (defined as age 20 years) is rare, with the United States statistics giving an incidence for young females of 20 cases per 100,000 individuals per year.1 The diagnosis of a gynecologic cancer in this age group is even more rare, with ovarian germ cell tumors (GCTs), ovarian stromal cell carcinomas, and rhabdomyosarcoma of the cervix and vagina being reported as the most common.2 This lecture discusses deviations from the standardRead MoreClinical Trials : Pediatric Cancer1398 Words   |  6 PagesI) Introduction 1. 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He intended that this field would specialize in ph ysiology, mental, emotional, and social structure of a child. In 1948 Dr. John Enders, Drs. Thomas

The Important Role of the Auditor Free Essays

string(273) " in an audit client or affiliate, has a direct investment of more than five percent in an audit client, has an indirect investment in an audit client of more than five percent, and if they own more than five percent of an entity of which the audit client owns an interest\." Auditors play an important role in the ensuring the integrity and reliability of the financial statement for public companies. Recently (in the United Sates especially) the independence and objectivity of auditors has been a major concern, and has been brought to the forefront. A new rule was then proposed to deal with these concerns. We will write a custom essay sample on The Important Role of the Auditor or any similar topic only for you Order Now This eventually led to the adoption of new requirements that must be followed by auditors in the United States. Many user groups had economic consequences at stake and lobbied the Securities and Exchange and Commission (SEC) to what they believed would be the best solution. This was mostly performed through submitting comments to the SEC and through participating in the public hearings held by the SEC to allow discussion on the proposed rule. This report will briefly describe independence as it relates to accounting profession, identify and describe the new requirements presented by the SEC and then describe the events and circumstances that led to the new requirements being proposed. It will also describe and assess the validity of the concerns that were stated at the various public hearings by the affected user groups. First a simple but important definition of independence and how it relates to the accounting profession will be presented. â€Å"Independence is generally understood to refer to a mental state of objectivity and lack of bias.† An auditor must perform the audit without allowing external factors to alter or effect his or her decisions. Douglas Carmichael goes on to relate independence to an auditor directly by stating â€Å"the auditor must be without bias with respect to the client since otherwise he [or she] would lack that impartiality necessary for the dependability of his [or her] findings, however excellent his [or her] technical proficiency may be.† This definition looks easy to interpret but it becomes hard to determine when an auditor is acting independently. Often, an auditor does not even realize when their own actions have been influenced by other factors. Objectivity is a state of mind and is more often than not is hard to prove. Of critical importance is the notion of independence in fact and independence in appearance. Ultimately auditors can be independent in fact but if a reasonable investor observes all relevant facts and circumstances and concludes auditors as not being independent then the whole profession suffers. An extreme consequence that could result is if investors and other financial statement users looked elsewhere for information when they are looking to invest. This would make financial reporting useless and would ultimately lead to its demise. This demonstrates the importance of auditors remaining independent of managers and reiterates the point that investors must be able to trust and rely on the financial statements. These issues directly relate to the two goals that the independence function seeks to achieve. The first goal is supply high quality audits without letting any external factors sway an auditor’s judgment (objectivity). The second goal is to achieve a high level of investor confidence in the audited financial statements. The difficulty in measuring the first objective has led to more concentration and focus on the second objective. It is this decreased investor confidence that has driven the new rule requirements, because there has not been a great amount of evidence that proves there is lower quality audits being performed. Commission’s Auditor Independence Requirements The release of this new rule establishes four principles to evaluate when assessing if an auditor is independent. â€Å"An auditor will not be independent when (1) has a mutual or conflicting interest with the audit client(2) audits his or her own work (3) functions as management or an employee of the audit client, or (4) acts as an advocate for the audit client.† These four principles are to be used when trying to determine if the actions of an auditor will impair the independence of an auditor and were the basis for forming the new independence requirements. They are rooted in the belief that an auditor must be independent in fact and appearance. The new rule considerably alters the number of people related to the auditor that can invest in the auditor’s clients because this would violate the independence requirements released by the SEC. It also limits the number of non- auditing services that can be provided by auditors to their audit clients, but at the same time puts no restrictions on the non- auditing services that can be provided to non-audit clients. The new requirements also call for proxy disclosure in the financial statements of a company. These proxy disclosures state information on certain non-audit services performed by the auditors in the last fiscal year. â€Å"The new auditor independence rule will revise the rules for auditor independence in primarily three areas: (1) investments by auditors or their family members in audit clients; (2) employment relationships between auditors or their family members and audit clients; and (3) the scope of services provided by the audit firms to their audit clients. †! Investments by Auditors and Family Members in Audit Clients The new rule restricts an auditor or a family member from investing in a firm’s audit client. It also restricts an auditor’s partner from investing in the client only if the auditor can directly influence the audit work. This new rule is left open for interpretation since if an auditor does not work on the audit he is not restricted as long as he is considered not to be influencing the audit in any way. The subjectivity is in the determining of who can or who does influence an audit. The new rule defines the auditor, family members and certain partners as â€Å"covered persons†. The new rule establishes certain situations that would find an auditor not to be independent if any covered persons participated in these situations. The rule specifically outlines that an auditor is not independent if a covered person has a direct investment in an audit client or affiliate, has a direct investment of more than five percent in an audit client, has an indirect investment in an audit client of more than five percent, and if they own more than five percent of an entity of which the audit client owns an interest. You read "The Important Role of the Auditor" in category "Essay examples" There are certain other financial relationships with an audit client that can restrict an auditor from being independent. These relationships include having loans to or from an audit client, certain savings, checking, brokerage accounts and holding certain individual insurance policies. The rule also put restrictions on certain audit clients investing in audit firms. Under the new rules an audit firm must be cautious of whom they hire and whom the client’s firm hires in order to remain independent. The new rule outlines specific instances in which the auditor would be declared as not being independent. â€Å"An accountant will not be independent if a close family member of a covered person is employed by an audit client in an accounting or financial reporting role, if a partner is employed by an audit client in an accounting or financial reporting role, and if a former employee of an audit client becomes a partner of a the accounting firm.† Scope of Services Provided by the Audit Firms to Their Audit Clients This is the area of the new rule that caused the most controversy when it was first introduced. The new rule greatly reduces the number of non-audit services that an auditor can perform for audit clients. The new rule identifies certain non-audit services that cannot be provided without damaging an auditor’s independence. These non-audit services are consistent with the four principles that the rule was based on. I will now highlight the certain services that an auditor cannot perform to an audit client and how these services relate to four principles that measure an auditor’s independence. Services related to the audit client’s accounting records or financial statements such as bookkeeping cannot be performed to an audit client. This service is restricted because it undermines the basic principle that auditors cannot audit their own work. Other non-audit services that are restricted because an auditor would end up auditing their own work are appraisal or valuation services, and actuarial services. An example of an appraisal service is when auditors are asked by their clients to value assets during the year, and then at the end of the fiscal year they are asked to perform the audit. This results in the auditors auditing their own work using their own underlying assumptions, which would directly result in bias. The same problem arises with actuarial services. When an auditor makes estimates for policy reserves and related accounts it affects the amounts that are reported on the balance sheet and will again result in auditors auditing their own work. The problem of an accountant having a mutual or conflicting interest with the audit client results in the restriction of non-audit services such as internal audit outsourcing, human resource services, broker or investment services, and financial information systems design and implementation. Internal audit outsourcing can cause managers and auditors to become a team when creating an internal control system and therefore they will both be responsible for its failure or success. If an auditor supplies a human resource service such as hiring they create a mutuality of interest because they have to accept some responsibility for ensuring the success of the employee. Supplying broker or investment services creates an interest for the auditor in increasing the value of the securities. Helping design information systems creates a mutual interest between the client and the auditor based on the success of the information system. Management functions performed by the auditor for their audit client are also restricted in the new rule. This allows the auditors to perform a management function for their clients and will inherently decrease objectivity in the audit and increases bias in the audit since the auditors are part of the firm that they are auditing. The last non-audit service that is restricted to audit clients is expert services. These include legal, administrative, or regulatory filing procedure advice. These are restricted because they give the appearance that when auditors provide these services to audit clients they are acting as an advocate for the audit client. Decisions to restrict these services were decided on using the four main principles presented earlier that evaluate an auditor’s independence. The creation of these principles was due to increasing concern that auditors were not remaining totally independent when performing the audit. Circumstances Leading to the Concern for an Auditor’s Independence There are a number of events in the accounting profession that led to the need for rules to obtain independent auditors. Accountants are in a profession that is seeing dramatic changes in the way firms are structured, the services they are providing, as well as increased competition. These events are creating situations that may seriously hinder the independence of auditors by giving them opportunities to act in the interests of their clients. There has been increased competition for auditing business among accounting firms. This tough competition has led to competitive pricing which in turn has led to decreased profits on audits. This tough competition has also led to auditors relying on audit clients for business more and could possibly lead to auditors acting in the best interests of management to keep their audit work instead of in the best interest of the public. Decreased profit margins are forcing accounting firms to cut costs, and some believe that the quality of audits are decreasing because of accountants are using less resources on their audits. There has also been an increasing array of services being performed by every accounting firm. Since auditing profits are decreasing many firms are looking to more profitable consulting services to help increase profits. â€Å"This has been a true metamorphosis for accounting firms, and particularly for the big firms, which some estimate now get 30 to 40% of their revenues from consulting and under 40% from accounting and auditing. Some of these firms have come to offer virtual one-stop shopping for all a client’s business consulting needs.† This has caused concerns that the audit function is becoming a loss leader and is being used to pursue additional business opportunities. This causes beliefs that the quality of the audit is being harmed and that investors are seeing a lower level of confidence in this new relationship. Richard Walker, a director of the SEC’s enforcement division, stated these beliefs are based not just on speculation, but on what we’re seeing in our investigations and other contacts with the profession. Walker went on to give researched examples of when an auditor has been persuaded by clients to act in the interest of the clients firm. One example he showed was a situation where the auditor was pressured to falsely improve the financial performance of the clients firm in order to receive additional consulting contracts. This should cause great concern because it is a great restraint placed on auditors to remain independent. There has also been increased pressure on managers to meet earnings expectations, and many professionals say this pressure has intensified, especially for certain types of firms. If firms miss their earnings expectations even by a slim margin the result is an immediate decrease in stock prices. This puts increased pressure on managers to do anything they can to artificially increase earnings. This puts increased pressure on the auditors to help management meet these expected earnings. The new emerging structure of accounting firms is also causing independence concerns. Over the last decade accounting firms have become bigger in size due to increased mergers, and there has also been an increase in the number of national and multi-national firms emerging. Many firms have prided themselves on being â€Å"one stop† shops for their clients. This gives the accounting firms control over many aspects and decisions of their clients firms. The problem with this is achieving independent decisions when trying to perform the audit. This causes all the problems discussed in the four principles of evaluating the independence of an auditor. There have been many circumstances emerging that have been causing independence concerns, and hopefully the new rules will be able to prevent these potential problems. However there were many people that strongly opposed many aspects of the new rule. This report will now discuss some of the concerns against the implementation of the rule as well as some strong opinions for implementing the rule immediately. Concerns Addressed at The Public Hearings Public hearings were held in New York City for all concerned parties to voice their opinions on the proposed new independence rules. Different parties that were represented were Chartered Public Accountants (CPA’s), professors, officers of major non-accountant companies, and regulators. Not all their comments will be examined, only their main concerns will be highlighted and evaluated. The first comment that will be examined is from Michael Daggett, who is a director at large of the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy and a CPA. Daggett expressed the common concern that independence is critical in appearance and fact in order to retain the integrity of the accounting profession. However he had two main problems with the rule. His first recommendation was that the SEC should take a more cautious view and try not to overreact to the situation at hand. He goes on to explain that often regulatory agencies are too quick to regulate in the time of crisis and controversy. He believes that the SEC has become too focused on trying to change the â€Å"nuts and bolts† of the auditor’s behavior, and has thus not been able to appropriately deal with the expansion and changing times of the profession. The SEC was faced with a potential crisis and even Daggett alluded to that idea in his testimony. The main crisis is maintaining quality audits, and to achieve this there must be independence on the auditor’s part. While the SEC is trying to control an auditor’s behavior in certain circumstances it is at the same time trying to deal with the changing profession and the expansion of services that are emerging. The SEC is not rushing to regulate because they see a potential crisis emerging and are simply dealing with it in advance. This is crucial and is a better solution than waiting for a number of huge audit failures to occur, and then trying to deal with it appropriately. Daggett’s second problem was with the restriction put on auditors to perform human resource services of an audit client. He stated, â€Å"It’s important to remember that auditor’s already have an interest in its clients success. He suggests that such services would create relatively little risk and an unyielding prohibition would seem to be excessive.† Employee performance is not likely to impair an auditor’s mindset and would not result in any bias. If an auditor helps choose human resource policies such as recruiting Evaluate this comment further Another CPA, Kalman Barson, gave comment on the proposed rule. He is a strong opponent to the new rule and he made sure his feelings were heard. He believes that the new rules are contrary to the best interests of the accounting profession, is counterproductive to the best interests of audit clients, and would not accomplish the goal of the reason for this rule being proposed. He believes that the new rule should be totally withdrawn because it will result in the opposite of what the SEC is trying to accomplish. He backs up his case by saying that there has not been one instance of impairment in audit quality as a result of an accounting firm also providing a consulting and auditing role simultaneously. He believes that the SEC is trying to fix something that is not broken. There are a couple of points that need to be addressed in his statements. The first is that audit quality is about more than just avoiding major audit failures or fraud cases. It must be addressed at a lower level before it becomes a major problem. This is the level that the SEC is trying to address presently. An audit failure is often a combination of several factors not just an independence issue. Trying to address the separate issues that can cause an audit failure is the first step. â€Å"To demand, as a predicate for commission action, evidence that each loss of independence produces an audit failure is a bit like demanding proof that every violation of a fire safety code results in a catastrophic fire.† Also there has been at least one instance where a firm has broken independence issues. â€Å"Price-Waterhouse Coopers was censured for improper professional conduct and violating auditor independence rules early this year (2000).† One other point that must be addressed is that with all the concerns of auditor independence that were raised while the economy is doing relatively well, what will happen when an economic hardships exist? Imagine the concerns and the pressure on auditors that will be raised when the majority of firms fall short of their earnings. This pressure could be huge and unbearable; this is why it must be dealt with now. The second major point that Barson addressed is that consulting for an audit client helps produce a higher quality audit. Understanding the clients operations and procedures more thoroughly helps the auditor to obtain a better understanding of the company and therefore the auditor is able to perform a better service for the client. This he argues is in the best interests of the client and society as a whole. He argues that inefficiencies would result by splitting up the consulting and auditing functions between firms, and would end up costing the client more in the long run. Inefficiencies would result because one firm would perform the audit and the other firm would have to perform all the consulting. This would result in the splitting of knowledge of the firm and would result in lower quality audits. The SEC does not believe that the quality of the audit will be lost and officers of Ernst and Young also carry this view. They believe that this argument is flawed in many areas. The first flaw is the inherent assumption that all knowledge obtained from non-audit services is relevant to an audit. It also assumes that the auditor receives all information received from non-audit services. Often a consulting division is reluctant to transfer information over to the auditors. Other times the consulting professionals will have little or no interaction with auditors especially in large firms. Ernst and Young recently sold their consulting business and therefore separated their auditing practice from the consulting area. Ernst and Young officials were stated as saying that as the result of the sale they see no reason why the quality of the audit would suffer in any way. They believe that the skills necessary to carry out an audit are inherently different than the skills you need to carry out consulting services. The SEC also made the point that only 25% of accounting firms audited by the big five firms also receives advisory services. This proves that 75% of the audits performed now are of considerably high quality. If it is not possible to perform audits without consulting for the firm at the same time we would have seen a huge amount of low quality audits or perhaps audit failures. A more neutral view will now be presented from the academic side of the debate. Douglas Carmichael is a professor at Baruch College and is a strong advocate for the new rule and his comments are based on research over the past thirty years. His first comment backs up the four principles that are used by the SEC to measure auditor independence. He believes that the basic principles are comprehensive and appropriate. The principle of conflicting and mutual interest is essential because without it the auditor could be too easily persuaded by clients to act in the client’s interest and therefore would reduce the reliability of the financial statements. His research has also showed that there has been evidence that consulting has resulted in impaired independence. His conclusions were based on thorough investigation of the actual underlying evidence. He also argues that the quality of the audit is not improved by consulting services. † He found that in many cases of auditor malpractice, the auditors have not made use of the knowledge of consultants providing services to the clients.† His last point is that the proposed restrictions are practical and they appropriately relate to the basic four principles. He believes the new rules appropriately relate to those principles, which is key since most of the professionals can relatively agree on the principles. Since there is agreement on the principles the controversy is mostly based on the restrictions, and Carmichael believes that these restrictions already adequately relate to the principles and need to be implemented immediately. A Canadian perspective will be presented next, from the point of view of the Chair of the Ontario Securities Commission (OSC). He underlines the importance of the auditor being independent in fact and appearance. He also mainly agrees with the new rules and their restrictions on non-audit services to audit clients. His main concern relating to auditor independence in Canada is the growing concern that the audit is becoming a loss leader to achieve more profitable consulting revenues. He believes that it would be natural for shareholders and other investors to perceive the auditor as losing confidence in the quality of the audit. He also expresses his concern that firms are placing more importance on the consulting side of the business compared to the audit side. He believes that this will cause firms to make strategic decisions based on this concern and will cause employees to strive towards being consultants because the firm places more value on the consulting side. While this could result in more talented professionals leaning towards the consulting side, especially if salaries are higher there are many other concerns that affect the recruitment of professionals. Other concerns that could affect recruiting are the attractiveness of the work to the individual, as well as the number of graduates to choose from. Brown had concerns that were related to the implementation of the new rules as a whole. He expressed concern that the regulation of the new rule cannot be sufficient by itself. The audit committee will have to play an important role in the process. It is key that the audit committee identifies independence violations, because they are on the front line and are closest to the action. The SEC is only one organization and will need a critical amount of help in finding violators. He also recommends that the SEC becomes an active participant in recommending or implementing similar rules in other countries. He stresses this importance because the United States constantly interacts with all other countries and the new rules will significantly affect interactions. This is important, but it will they will have to convince the SEC to spend time on this task. It would be much easier for the SEC to recommend other countries to adopt the same requirements as the U.S. Brown goes onto illustrate this point by showing that in Canada we are looking at the SEC’s proposal closely and extensively and † will formulate our regulatory response partly on your experience.† The concerns of the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) will now be addressed. They totally agree with the four basic principles that were outlined by the SEC. The IIA also generally agrees with the underlying objectives of the SEC in releasing these requirements (improving quality and improving investor confidence). Their main concerns have to do with the technical aspects of the rules. Their main concern is that the SEC has restricted services in the wrong manner. They believe that â€Å"not all non-audit services need to be restricted unless their fees are sufficient enough to trigger independence concerns and as long as there are no management or operating considerations that hinder independence.† They also believe the Independence Standards Board in the U.S. should be responsible for determining and updating the list of services that would impair independence. The objective list allows for easier regulation by allowing for the subjectivity to be removed. The certain restricted services were chosen because they related back to the four basic principles. This ensures that the SEC remains consistent by following a dependable framework for making decisions regarding auditor independence. One last comment to look at is from CPA, Norman Manley. He submitted comments on behalf of all forty employees of Dellinger Deese, PLLC. They are totally opposed against the new ruling and voiced many of the same concerns that were seen from other CPA’s. Their concerns can be summarized by their opening comment, â€Å"We firmly believe the proposal is unwarranted and not supported by facts, or requested by the financial and business community we both serve. Non-audit services offered by audit firms simply have not compromised auditor independence or audit failure. Focus will be on their additional concerns that were voiced at the public hearings. One concern they voiced was that the broad restriction on the non-audit services will place too much reliance on audit fees for accounting firms and this will not serve the public interest. The public interest is always an important consideration to keep in mind, but in this instance the public interest will still be served by providing high quality audits backed with investor confidence. There will still be plenty of opportunities to perform audits and the new rulings will not decrease the number of firms that require audits. They are also concerned with the quality of talent that will be recruited and retained by accounting firms. They believe that accounting professionals will have 25-40% of their market blocked by the restrictions. They further believe that this will cause professionals to choose a career where their market is wide open. They also had some economic issues that they were concerned about. The first being the inability for accounting firms to combine and obtain the economic benefits of mergers and joint ventures. Their ability to merge will be due to concerns about violating independence requirements. A firm could merge with another firm and would then become an affiliate of the accounting firm. They also believe that the SEC has interfered with the work of the Independence Standards Board (ISB) in the USA. The believed the SEC originally assigned the issue to the ISB and then jumped in and regulated prematurely. However, the SEC worked more in conjunction with the ISB by taking their research and many of their recommendations. They also agreed more with recent disclosure and audit committee requirements that were adopted by the ISB, SEC, New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), and the American Stock Exchange (ASE). They believe that these requirements would have of solved the independence problem if given time to mature and work. To conclude their concerns with the new rule one more point will be issued. They know and thoroughly understand the problems associated with a lack of independence, and they stated that they always put independence rules at the top of their priorities. They do not see a problem with non-audit services impairing this independence because auditors have the ability to remain independent using their own professional judgment. This report will conclude by drawing on comments given by chairman of the SEC, Arthur Levitt. He believes â€Å"in this environment of conflicting interests, the investing public relies on the accountant to stay true to his or her fiduciary duty, to never lose sight of the precious franchise that is theirs to guard so vigilantly.† He is aware that the perceived value of the audit is being put at risk and for this and other reasons he is strongly committed to keeping the public’s interest first, and will not let new circumstances interfere with his task. He also realizes that the SEC cannot do it alone and is willing to work with the profession to continuously improve the situation. He is dedicated to continuous improvement of financial statements to better serve investors, the market, and the public. He stresses that he will leave the communication lines open between the SEC and CPA’s in order to retain a strong respect and teamwork between the two parties. The majority of opposition seems to be coming from a main source. The CPA’s seem to be the only interest group that is opposed, and this strengthens the validity of the new rulings. If there was strong opposition stemming from other interest groups it would be easier to challenge the new ruling. The point to remember is that being an accounting professional entails looking out for the best interests of the public, and this is what the new requirements are striving to achieve. The new requirements will not be able o achieve this alone, but they are an important aspect in the battle for independence. The main concern from the opposition of the rule has to deal with the scope of services that are restricted. Limiting non-audit services to audit clients still leaves plenty of opportunity open to perform audits and still makes it attainable to perform high quality audits while at the same time retaining investor confidence. We must remember, â€Å"It’s not enough that audit quality is maintained and that the numbers are right. It’s also necessary that public investors-the users of financial reports-perceive that the numbers are right.† How to cite The Important Role of the Auditor, Essay examples

Personal Identity Locke and Hume Essay Example

Personal Identity: Locke and Hume Paper By claiming that it does not necessarily belong to any one mind in particular is inferring then that the self is not in fact a property. Then how can it be said to exist? Thomas Reid (Macquarie, lecture 17) also raises an important objection to Lockes theory of personal identity that seems fairly self-evident to me. We can consider a man as: a child, then in middle age and at old age. If the man in middle age can remember occurrences when he was a young boy, but now that he is an old man cant, then can he be considered a different person from the young boy? We will write a custom essay sample on Personal Identity: Locke and Hume specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Personal Identity: Locke and Hume specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Personal Identity: Locke and Hume specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer According to Locke the old man is the same as the middle aged one, and the middle aged is the same as the child. Yet there is no continuity of consciousness between the three, any break in memory would render them a non-person if we follow Lockes argument-clearly it is logically inconsistent. David Humes bundle theory of the self seems to me rather more logically coherent. He claimed that humans tend to think of themselves as the same person as they were, say, 10 years ago; that we believed that although one had evolved over the period in a number of ways that the self had endured. According to Hume however, this was a mistake, and when examined empirically no more than a practical habit: I never can catch myself at any time without a perception, and never observe anything but the perception(TI, vi, p. 251). It is clear, posits Hume, our thoughts and perceptions flow from one idea to the next; so we encounter a bundle, or grouping, of perceptions throughout our life but no actual continuous and enduring underlying self or I as a unity of consciousness. While there is a stability of perceptions over the short term, and some loose association of experiences, there is no overarching continuity of I in reality. Hume agrees that we extend over time in actions, we begin a job and finish it some time later, and that our desires also extend in some sort of continuity over time. Furthermore our physical bodies endure reasonably consistently; we age gradually. This according to Hume is what ultimately defines our sense of personal identity. While Humes theory of the self is attractive in my view, if anything it doesnt go far enough toward demonstrating the illusory nature of the I. According to many in the Eastern metaphysical traditions, particularly Buddhism, if we accept everything must be causal in nature, a position that empiricists such as Locke and Hume would agree, then phenomena must arrive in a mutually interdependent web. No thing can arise in and of itself intrinsically, but rather needs external causes to arise. This fundamental axiom can be found within the logical law of identity A=A. Or expressed another way A= not -A. For something to be said to exist, to have identity, we have to be able to contrast it with everything that it is not. In this way all things depend on others for existence; known in the Buddhist tradition variously as dependent origination or co-dependent arising, among other terms. Consciousness is what demarcates objects, phenomena etc, from what it is not . We, as conscious beings are constantly drawing boundaries-with our perceptions, concepts and so forth-defining the A, and always in an arbitrary fashion. For where can a boundary be objectively said to exist out there to any particular thing? It must ultimately reside within our minds. So too, in my opinion, can it be said the I itself. If we are indeed a collection of experiences, desires, and an embodied being over time, then that bundle we designate the self is also a construct created by consciousness; rather than an objective, inherently existent thing-in-itself. The account by Sacks (1985) of William Thompson whom has lost his memory due to Korsakovs syndrome also points to this reality, in my view. For if a personal identity relies on a sense of continuity through memory, as Locke would have it. And therefore can be effectively erased or pithed as Sacks puts it through damage to the brain, then how was the self ever an objectively existing thing in the first place? Surely then it is just another object of consciousness in Thompsons mind-what has been erased or damaged is a brains memory, not an personal identity-in-itself. Moreover that Thompson has to confabulate stories, in order to give himself some sense, or illusion, of continuity, points in my view to the fact that thats what we all do in our minds to some degree constantly. I may remember myself as being a top footballer as a teenager many years ago, but is it empirically, and more importantly, objectively true? Even the best memories can be deceptive, especially over longer periods. Thus like Thompson all we ultimately have is a self-narrative, at this moment, contained within our consciousness. Our self, while seemingly illusory, is ultimately what we define it to be in any given moment. In the Buddhist tradition this is known as the middle way. So, while Humes bundle theory of the self points us in the right direction by drawing into question Lockes unity of consciousness as a means of defining identity. And instead posits we understand our selves as a composition of many different and related yet constantly changing elements, it seems to me he still is reluctant to totally dispose of the idea that there can be an objectively or inherently existent I A self that ultimately perceives the unity of these various states and processes within us. In the tradition of the sceptic Hume himself, I remain dubious that such a unifier self can be said to objectively exist. References Hume, David. Of personal identity in A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume, David; Selby-Bigge, L. A. , 1972 , 251-253 . Locke, John. Of identity and diversity extract in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke, John; Nidditch, Peter H. , 1975 , 328-347. Macquarie University PHI130SP3 Mind, Meaning and Metaphysics: Week 9 Unit content. Parfit, Derek. Why our identity is not what matters extracts in Reasons and Persons, Parfit, Derek, 1984, 245-249, 253. Sacks, Oliver, A matter of identity in The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, Sacks, Oliver, 1985, 103-110. Shoemaker, David. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Personal Identity and Ethics. First published Tue Dec 20, 2005; substantive revision Wed Mar 5, 2008. http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/identity-ethics/ (accessed November 3, 2008)

Historical Development of Nursing Essays

Historical Development of Nursing Essays Historical Development of Nursing Essay Historical Development of Nursing Essay Historical Development of Nursing Timeline Create a 700- to 1,050-word timeline paper of the historical development of nursing science, starting with Florence Nightingale and continuing to the present. Format the timeline however you wish, but the word count and assignment requirements must be met. Include the following in your timeline: Explain the historical development of nursing science by citing specific years, theories, theorists, and events in the history of nursing. Explain the relationship between nursing science and the profession. Include the influences on nursing science of other disciplines, such as philosophy, religion, education, anthropology, the social sciences, and psychology. Prepare to discuss your timeline with your Learning Team or in class. Format all references consistent with APA guidelines. Copyright  © 2013 Penn Nursing Science, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing nursing. upenn. edu/nhhc/Pages/AmericanNursingIntroduction. aspx nursing. penn. edu/nhhc/Welcome%20Page%20Content/American%20Nursing. pdf Nursing Theories. The Base for Professional Nursing Practice, Sixth Edition Chapter 2: Nursing Theory and Clinical Practice ISBN: 9780135135839  Author: Julia B. GeorgeRN, PhD copyright  © 2011  Pearson Education lorence Nightingale believed that the force for healing resides within the human being and that, if the environment is appropriately supportive, humans will seek to heal themselves. Her 13 canons indicate the areas of environment of concern to nursing. These are ventilation and warming, health of houses (pure air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness, and light), petty management (today known as continuity of care), noise, variety, taking food, what food, bed and bedding, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, personal cleanliness, chattering hopes and advices, and observation of the sick. Hildegard E. Peplau focused on the interpersonal relationship between the nurse and the patient. The three phases of this relationship are orientation, working, and termination. The relationship is initiated by the patient’s felt need and termination occurs when the need is met. Both the nurse and the patient grow as a result of their interaction. Virginia Henderson first defined nursing as doing for others what they lack the strength, will, or knowledge to do for themselves and then identified 14 components of care. These components provide a guide to identifying areas in which a person may lack the strength, will, or knowledge to meet personal needs. They include breathing, eating and drinking, eliminating, moving, sleeping and resting, dressing and undressing appropriately, maintaining body temperature, keeping clean and protecting the skin, avoiding dangers and injury to others, communicating, worshiping, working, playing, and learning. Dorothea E. Orem identified three theories of self-care, self-care deficit, and nursing systems. The ability of the person to meet daily requirements is known as self-care, and carrying out those activities is self-care agency. Parents serve as dependent care agents for their children. The ability to provide self-care is influenced by basic conditioning factors including but not limited to age, gender, and developmental state. Self-care needs are partially determined by the self-care requisites, which are categorized as universal (air, water, food, elimination, activity and rest, solitude and social interaction, hazard prevention, function within social groups), developmental, and health deviation (needs arising from injury or illness and from efforts to treat the injury or illness). The total demands created by the self-care requisites are identified as therapeutic self-care demand. When the therapeutic self-care demand exceeds self-care agency, a self-care deficit exists, and nursing is needed. Based on the needs, the nurse designs nursing systems that are wholly compensatory (the nurse provides all needed care), partly compensatory (the nurse and the patient provide care together), or supportive-educative (the nurse provides needed support and education for the patient to exercise self-care). Dorothy E. Johnson stated that nursing’s area of concern is the behavioral system that consists of seven subsystems. The subsystems are attachment or affiliative, dependency, ingestive, eliminative, sexual, aggressive, and achievement. The behaviors for each of the subsystems occur as a result of the drive, set, choices, and goal of the subsystem. The purpose of the behaviors is to reduce tensions and keep the behavioral system in balance. Ida Jean Orlando described a disciplined nursing process. Her process is initiated by the patient’s behavior. This behavior engenders a reaction in the nurse, described as an automatic perception, thought, or feeling. The nurse shares the reaction with the patient, identifying it as the nurse’s perception, thought, or feeling, and seeking validation of the accuracy of the reaction. Once the nurse and the patient have agreed on the immediate need that led to the patient’s behavior and to the action to be taken by the nurse to meet that need, the nurse carries out a deliberative action. Any action taken by the nurse for reasons other than meeting the patient’s immediate need is an automatic action. Lydia E. Hall believed that persons over the age of 16 who were past the acute stage of illness required a different focus for their care than during the acute stage. She described the circles of care, core, and cure. Activities in the care circle belong solely to nursing and involve bodily care and comfort. Activities in the core circle are shared with all members of the health care team and involve the person and therapeutic use of self. Hall believed the drive to recovery must come from within the person. Activities in the cure circle also are shared with other members of the health care team and may include the patient’s family. The cure circle focuses on the disease and the medical care. Faye G. Abdellah sought to change the focus of care from the disease to the patient and thus proposed patient-centered approaches to care. She identified 21 nursing problems, or areas vital to the growth and functioning of humans that require support from nurses when persons are for some reason limited in carrying out the activities needed to provide such growth. These areas are hygiene and comfort, activity (including exercise, rest, and sleep), safety, body mechanics, oxygen, nutrition, elimination, fluid and electrolyte balance, recognition of physiological responses to disease, regulatory mechanisms, sensory functions, emotions, interrelatedness of emotions and illness, communication, interpersonal relationships, spiritual goals, therapeutic environment, individuality, optimal goals, use of community resources, and role of society. Ernestine Wiedenbach proposed a prescriptive theory that involves the nurse’s central purpose, prescription to fulfill that purpose, and the realities that influence the ability to fulfill the central purpose (the nurse, the patient, the goal, the means, and the framework or environment). Nursing involves the identification of the patient’s need for help, the ministration of help, and validation that the efforts made were indeed helpful. Her principles of helping indicate the nurse should look for patient behaviors that are not consistent with what is expected, should continue helping efforts in spite of encountering difficulties, and should recognize personal limitations and seek help from others as needed. Nursing actions may be reflex or spontaneous and based on sensations, conditioned or automatic and based on perceptions, impulsive and based on assumptions, or deliberate or responsible and based on realization, insight, design, and decision that involves discussion and joint planning with the patient. Joyce Travelbee was concerned with the interpersonal process between the professional nurse and that nurse’s client, whether an individual, family, or community. The functions of the nurse–client, or human-to-human, relationship are to prevent or cope with illness or suffering and to find meaning in illness or suffering. This relationship requires a disciplined, intellectual approach, with the nurse employing a therapeutic use of self. The five phases of the human-to-human relationship are encounter, identities, empathy, sympathy, and rapport. Myra Estrin Levine described adaptation as the process by which conservation is achieved, with the purpose of conservation being integrity, or preservation of the whole of the person. Adaptation is based on past experiences of effective responses (historicity), the use of responses specific to the demands being made (specificity), and more than one level of response (redundancy). Adaptation seeks the best fit between the person and the environment. The principles of conservation deal with conservation of energy, structural integrity, personal integrity, and social integrity of the individual. Imogene M. King presented both a systems-based conceptual framework of personal, interpersonal, and social systems and a theory of goal attainment. The concepts of the theory of goal attainment are interaction, perception, communication, transaction, self, role, stress, growth and development, time, and personal space. The nurse and the client usually meet as strangers. Each brings to this meeting perceptions and judgments about the situation and the other; each acts and then reacts to the other’s action. The reactions lead to interaction, which, when effective, leads to transaction or movement toward mutually agreed-on goals. She emphasizes that both the nurse and the patient bring important knowledge and information to this goal-attainment process. Martha E. Rogers identified the basic science of nursing as the Science of Unitary Human Beings. The human being is a whole, not a collection of parts. She presented the human being and the environment as energy fields that are integral with each other. The human being does not have an energy field but is an energy field. These fields can be identified by their pattern, described as a distinguishing characteristic that is perceived as a single wave. These patterns occur in a pandimensional world. Rogers’s principles are resonancy, or continuous change to higher frequency; helicy, or unpredictable movement toward increasing diversity; and integrality, or the continuous mutual process of the human field and the environmental field. Sister Callista Roy proposed the Roy Adaptation Model. The person or group responds to stimuli from the internal or external environment through control processes or coping mechanisms identified as the regulator and cognator (stabilizer and innovator for the group) subsystems. The regulator processes are essentially automatic, while the cognator processes involve perception, learning, judgment, and emotion. The results of the processing by these coping mechanisms are behaviors in one of four modes. These modes are the physiological–physical mode (oxygenation; nutrition; elimination; activity and rest; protection; senses; fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balance; and endocrine function for individuals and resource adequacy for groups), self-concept–group identity mode, role function mode, and interdependence mode. These behaviors may be either adaptive (promoting the integrity of the human system) or ineffective (not promoting such integrity). The nurse assesses the behaviors in each of the modes and identifies those adaptive behaviors that need support and those ineffective behaviors that require intervention. For each of these behaviors, the nurse then seeks to identify the associated stimuli. The stimulus most directly associated with the behavior is the focal stimulus; all other stimuli that are verified as influencing the behavior are contextual stimuli. Any stimuli that may be influencing the behavior but that have not been verified as doing so are residual stimuli. Once the stimuli are identified, the nurse, in cooperation with the patient, plans and carries out interventions to alter stimuli and support adaptive behaviors. The effectiveness of the actions taken is evaluated. Betty Neuman developed the Neuman Systems Model. Systems have three environments- the internal, the external, and the created environment. Each system, whether an individual or a group, has several structures. The basic structure or core is where the energy resources reside. This core is protected by lines of resistance that in turn are surrounded by the normal line of defense and finally the flexible line of defense. Each of the structures consists of the five variables of physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental, and spiritual characteristics. Each variable is influenced by intrapersonal, interpersonal, and extrapersonal factors. The system seeks a state of equilibrium that may be disrupted by stressors. Stressors, either existing or potential, first encounter the flexible line of defense. If the flexible line of defense cannot counteract the stressor, then the normal line of defense is activated. If the normal line of defense is breached, the stressor enters the system and leads to a reaction, associated with the lines of resistance. This reaction is what is usually termed symptoms. If the lines of resistance allow the stressor to reach the core, depletion of energy resources and death are threatened. In the Neuman Systems Model, there are three levels of prevention. Primary prevention occurs before a stressor enters the system and causes a reaction. Secondary prevention occurs in response to the symptoms, and tertiary prevention seeks to support maintenance of stability and to prevent future occurrences. Kathryn E. Barnard’s focus is on the circumstances that enhance the development of the young child. In her Child Health Assessment Interaction Model, the key components are the child, the caregiver, the environment, and the interactions between child and caregiver. Contributions made by the child include temperament and ability to regulate and by the caregiver physical health, mental health, coping, and level of education. The environment includes both animate and inanimate resources. In assessing interaction, the parent is assessed in relation to sensibility to cues, fostering emotional growth, and fostering cognitive growth. The infant is assessed in relation to clarity of cue given and responsiveness to parent. Josephine E. Paterson and Loretta T. Zderad presented humanistic nursing. Humans are seen as becoming through choices, and health is a personal value of more-being and well-being. Humanistic nursing involves dialogue, community, and phenomenologic nursology. Dialogue occurs through meeting the other, relating with the other, being in presence together, and sharing through call and response. Community is the sense of â€Å"we. † Phenomenologic nursology involves the nurse preparing to know another, having intuitive responses to another, learning about the other scientifically, synthesizing information about the other with information already known, and developing a truth that is both uniquely personal and generally applicable. Madeleine M. Leininger provided a guide to the inclusion of culture as a vital aspect of nursing practice. Her Sunrise Model posits that important dimensions of culture and social structure are technology, religion, philosophy, kinship and other related social factors, cultural values and lifeways, politics, law, economics, and education within the context of language and environment. All of these influence care patterns and expressions that impact the health or well-being of individuals, families, groups, and institutions. The diverse health systems include the folk care systems and the professional care systems that are linked by nursing. To provide culture congruent care, nursing decisions and actions should seek to provide culture care preservation or maintenance, culture care accommodation or negotiation, or culture care repatterning or restructuring. Margaret Newman described health as expanding consciousness. Important concepts are consciousness (the information capacity of the system), pattern (movement, diversity, and rhythm of the whole), pattern recognition (identification within the observer of the whole of another), and transformation (change). Health and disease are seen as reflections of the larger whole rather than as different entities. She proposed (with Sime and Corcoran-Perry) the unitary–transformative paradigm in which human beings are viewed as unitary phenomenon. These phenomenon are identified by pattern, and change is unpredictable, toward diversity, and transformative. Stages of disorganization, or choice points, lead to change, and health is the evolving pattern of the whole as the system moves to higher levels of consciousness. The nurse enters into process with a client and does not serve as a problem solver. Jean Watson described nursing as human science and human care. Her clinical caritas processes include practicing loving-kindness and equanimity within a context of caring consciousness; being authentically present and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and one-being-cared-for; cultivating one’s own spiritual practice and transpersonal self, developing and sustaining helping-trusting in an authentic caring relationship; being present to and supportive of the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with the deeper spirit of self and the one-being-cared-for; creatively using self and all ways of knowing as a part of the caring process to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices; engaging in a genuine teaching-learning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning while attempting to stay within other’s frame of reference; creating healing environments at all levels, physical as well as nonphysical, within a subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby the potentials of wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are enhanced; assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, to potentiate alignment of mind/body/spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence; opening and attending to spiritual-mysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; and soul care for self and the one-being-cared-for. These caritas processes occur within a transpersonal caring relationship and a caring occasion and caring moment as the nurse and other come together and share with each other. The transpersonal caring relationship seeks to provide mental and spiritual growth for both participants while seeking to restore or improve the harmony and unity within the personhood of the other. Rosemarie Rizzo Parse developed the theory of Humanbecoming within the simultaneity paradigm that views human beings as developing meaning through freedom to choose and as more than and different from a sum of parts. Her practice methodology has three dimensions, each with a related process. The first is illuminating meaning, or explicating, or making clear through talking about it, what was, is, and will be. The second is synchronizing rhythms, or dwelling with or being immersed with the process of connecting and separating within the rhythms of the exchange between the human and the universe. The third is mobilizing transcendence, or moving beyond or moving toward what is envisioned, the moment to what has not yet occurred. In the theory of Humanbecoming, the nurse is an interpersonal guide, with the responsibility for decision making (or making of choices) residing in the client. The nurse provides support but not counseling. However, the traditional role of teaching does fall within illuminating meaning, and serving as a change agent is congruent with mobilizing transcendence. Helen C. Erickson, Evelyn M. Tomlin, and Mary Ann P. Swain presented the theory of Modeling and Role-Modeling. Both modeling and role-modeling involve an art and a science. Modeling requires the nurse to seek an understanding of the client’s view of the world. The art of modeling involves the use of empathy in developing this understanding. The science of modeling involves the use of the nurse’s knowledge in analyzing the information collected to create the model. Role-modeling seeks to facilitate health. The art of role-modeling lies in individualizing the facilitations, while the science lies in the use of the nurse’s theoretical knowledge base to plan and implement care. The aims of intervention are to build trust, promote the client’s positive orientation of self, promote the client’s perception of being in control, promote the client’s strengths, and set mutual health-directed goals. The client has self-care knowledge about what his needs are and self-care resources to help meet these needs and takes self-care action to use the resources to meet the needs. In addition, a major motivation for human behavior is the drive for affiliated individuation, or having a personal identity while being connected to others. The individual’s ability to mobilize resources is identified as adaptive potential. Adaptive potential may be identified as adaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resources are utilized appropriately), maladaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resource utilization is placing one or more subsystems in jeopardy), arousal (a stress state in which the client is having difficulty mobilizing resources), or impoverishment (a stress state in which resources are diminished or depleted). Interventions differ according to the adaptive potential. Those in adaptive equilibrium can be encouraged to continue and may require only facilitation of their self-care actions. Those in maladaptive equilibrium present the challenge of seeing no reason to change since they are in equilibrium. Here motivation strategies to seek to change are needed. Those in arousal are best supported by actions that facilitate change and support individuation; these are likely to include teaching, guidance, direction, and other assistance. Those in impoverishment have strong affiliation needs, need their internal strengths promoted, and need to have resources provided. Nola J. Pender developed the Health Promotion Model (revised) with the goal of achieving outcomes of health-promoting behavior. Areas identified to help understand personal choices made in relation to health-promoting behavior include perceived benefits of action, perceived barriers to action, perceived self-efficacy (or ability to carry out the action), activity-related affect, interpersonal influences, situation influences, commitment to a plan of action, and immediate competing demands and preferences. Patricia Benner described expert nursing practice and identified five stages of skill acquisition as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert. She discusses a number of concepts in relation to these stages, including agency, assumptions, expectations and set, background meaning, caring, clinical forethought, clinical judgment, clinical knowledge, clinical reasoning, clinical transitions, common meanings, concern, coping, skill acquisition, domains of practice, embodied intelligence, embodied knowledge, emotions, ethical judgment, experience, graded qualitative distinctions, intuition, knowing the patient, maxims, paradigm cases and personal knowledge, reasoning-in-transition, social embeddedness, stress, temporality, thinking-in-action, and unplanned practices. Juliet Corbin and Anselm L. Strauss developed the Chronic Illness Trajectory Framework, in which they describe the course of illness and the actions taken to shape that course. The phases of the framework are pretrajectory, trajectory onset, stable, unstable, acute, crisis, comeback, downward, and dying. A trajectory projection is one’s personal vision of the illness, and a trajectory scheme is the plan of actions to shape the course of the illness, control associated symptoms, and handle disability. Important also are one’s biography or life story and one’s everyday life activities (similar to activities of daily living). Anne Boykin and Savina Schoenhofer present nursing as caring in a grand theory that may be used in combination with other theories. Persons are caring by virtue of being human; are caring, moment to moment; are whole and complete in the moment; and are already complete while growing in completeness. Personhood is the process of living grounded in caring and is enhanced through nurturing relationships. Nursing as a discipline is a being, knowing, living, and valuing response to a social call. As a profession, nursing is based on a social call and uses a body of knowledge to respond to that call. The focus of nursing is nurturing persons living in caring and growing in caring. This nurturing occurs in the nursing situation, or the lived experience shared between the nurse and the nursed, in which personhood is enhanced. The call for nursing is not based on a need or a deficit and thus focuses on helping the other celebrate the fullness of being rather than seeking to fix something. Boykin and Schoenhofer encourage the use of storytelling to make evident the service of nursing. Katharine Kolcaba developed a comfort theory in which she describes comfort, comfort care, comfort measures, and comfort needs as well as health-seeking behavior, institutional integrity, and intervening variables. She speaks of comfort as physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural and describes technical comfort measures, coaching for comfort, and comfort food for the soul. Ramona Mercer describes the process of becoming a mother in the four stages of commitment, attachment, and preparation; acquaintance, learning, and physical restoration; moving toward a new normal; and achievement of the maternal identity. The stages occur with the three nested living environments of family and friends, community, and society at large. Afaf Meleis, in her theory of transitions, identifies four types of transitions: developmental, situational, health–illness, and organizational. Properties of the transition experience include awareness, engagement, change and difference, time span, critical points, and events. Personal conditions include meanings, cultural beliefs and attitudes, socioeconomic status, and preparation and knowledge. Community conditions include family support, information available, health care resources, and role models. Process indicators are feeling connected, interacting, location, and being situated and developing confidence and coping. Outcome indicators include mastery and fluid integrative processes. Merle H. Mishel describes uncertainty in illness with the three major themes of antecedents of uncertainty, appraisal of uncertainty, and coping with uncertainty. Antecedents of uncertainty are the stimuli frame, including symptom pattern, event familiarity, and event congruence; cognitive capacity or informational processing ability; and structure providers, such as education, social support, and credible authorities. Appraisal of uncertainty includes both inference (use of past experience to evaluate an event) and illusion (creating beliefs from uncertainty with a positive outlook). Coping with uncertainty includes danger, opportunity, coping, and adaptation. The Reconceptualized Uncertainty in Illness Theory adds self-organization and probabilistic thinking and changes the goal from return to previous level of functioning to growth to a new value system. Each of these models or theories will be applied to clinical practice with the following case study: May Allenski, an 84-year-old White female, had emergency femoral-popliteal bypass surgery two days ago. She has severe peripheral vascular disease, and a clot blocked 90% of the circulation to her right leg one week ago. The grafts were taken from her left leg, so there are long incisions in each leg. She lives in a small town about 75 miles from the medical center. The initial clotting occurred late on Friday night; she did not see a doctor until Monday. The first physician referred her to a vascular specialist, who then referred her to the medical center. Her 90-year-old husband drove her to the medical center on Tuesday. You anticipate she will be discharged to home on the fourth postoperative day, as is standard procedure. She is learning to transfer to and from bed and toilet to wheelchair. Table 2-1 shows examples of application in clinical practice that are not complete but are intended to provide only a partial example for each. Study of these examples can provide ideas or suggestions for use in clinical practice. Readers are encouraged to develop further detail as appropriate to their practice.

History and Design of Submarines

History and Design of Submarines Designs for underwater boats or submarines date back to the 1500s and ideas for underwater travel date back even further. However, it was not until the 19th century that the first useful submarines began to appear. During the Civil War, the Confederates built the H.L. Hunley, the submarine that sank a Union ship. The U.S.S. Housatonic was built in 1864. But it wasnt until after World War I began that the first truly practical and modern submarines were invented. The submariners problem has always been how to improve his underwater endurance and performance, and both capabilities are defined by the ship. Early in submarine history the submariners problem often was how to make his ship work at all. Hollow Papyrus Reeds Historical accounts point out that man has always sought to explore the ocean depths. An early record from the Nile Valley in Egypt gives us the first illustration. It is a wall painting that shows duck hunters, bird spears in hand, creeping up to their prey beneath the surface as they breathe through hollow papyrus reeds. The Athenians are said to have used divers to clear the harbor entrance during the siege of Syracuse. And Alexander the Great, in his operations against Tyre, ordered divers to destroy any submersible vehicle (submarine) defenses the city might undertake to build. While in none of these records does it actually say that Alexander had any kind of submersible vehicle, legend has it that he descended in a device that kept its occupants dry and admitted light. William Bourne - 1578 Not until 1578 did any record appear of a craft designed for underwater navigation. William Bourne, a former Royal Navy gunner, designed a completely enclosed boat that could be submerged and rowed beneath the surface. His creation was a wooden framework bound in waterproofed leather. It was to be submerged by using hand vises to contract the sides and decrease the volume. Although Bournes idea never got beyond the drawing board, a similar apparatus was launched in 1605. But it didnt get much farther because the designers had neglected to consider the tenacity of underwater mud. The craft became stuck in the river bottom during its first underwater trial. Cornelius Van Drebbel - 1620 What might be called the first practical submarine was a rowboat covered with greased leather. It was the idea of Cornelius Van Drebbel, a Dutch doctor living in England, in 1620. Van Drebbels submarine was powered by rowers pulling on oars that protruded through flexible leather seals in the hull. Snorkel air tubes were held above the surface by floats, thus permitting a submergence time of several hours. Van Drebbels submarine successfully maneuvered at depths of 12 to 15 feet below the surface of the Thames River. Van Drebbel followed his first boat with two others. The later models were larger but they relied upon the same principles. Legend has it that after repeated tests, King James I of England rode in one of his later models to demonstrate its safety. Despite its successful demonstrations, Van Drebbels invention failed to arouse the interest of the British Navy. It was an age when the possibility of submarine warfare was still far in the future. Giovanni Borelli - 1680 In 1749 the British periodical Gentlemens Magazine printed a short article describing a most unusual device for submerging and surfacing. Reproducing an Italian scheme developed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680, the article depicted a craft with a number of goatskins built into the hull. Each goatskin was to be connected to an aperture at the bottom. Borelli planned to submerge this vessel by filling the skins with water and to surface it by forcing the water out with a twisting rod. Even though Borellis submarine was never built it provided what was probably the first approach to the modern ballast tank. Continue David Bushnells Turtle Submarine The first American submarine is as old as the United States itself. David Bushnell (1742-1824), a Yale graduate, designed and built a submarine torpedo boat in 1776. The one-man vessel submerged by admitting water into the hull and surfaced by pumping it out with a hand pump. Powered by a pedal-operated propeller and armed with a keg of powder, the egg-shaped Turtle gave Revolutionary Americans high hopes for a secret weapon - a weapon that could destroy the British warships anchored in New York Harbor. Turtle Submarine: Use as a Weapon The Turtles torpedo, a keg of powder, was to be attached to an enemy ships hull and detonated by a time fuse. On the night of September 7, 1776, the Turtle, operated by an Army volunteer, Sergeant Ezra Lee, conducted an attack on the British ship HMS Eagle. However, the boring device that was operated from inside the oak-planked Turtle failed to penetrate the target vessels hull. It is likely that the wooden hull was too hard to penetrate, the boring device hit a bolt or iron brace, or the operator was too exhausted to screw in the weapon. When Sergeant Lee attempted to shift the Turtle to another position beneath the hull, he lost contact with the target vessel and ultimately was forced to abandon the torpedo. Although the torpedo was never attached to the target, the clockwork timer detonated it about an hour after it was released. The result was a spectacular explosion that ultimately forced the British to increase their vigilance and to move their ships anchorage further out in the harbor. Royal Navy logs and reports from this period make no mention of this incident, and it is possible that the Turtles attack may be more submarine legend than a historical event. David Bushnell Larger Photo of Turtle SubmarineDavid Bushnell built a unique vessel, called the Turtle, designed to be propelled underwater by an operator who turned its propeller by hand. David Bushnells American TurtleThe only working, full-scale model of David Bushnells 1776 invention, the American Turtle. David Bushnell 1740-1826The most sensational contribution of patriot and inventor David Bushnell to the American Revolutionary War effort was the worlds first functioning submarine. Continue Robert Fulton and the Nautilus Submarine Then came another American, Robert Fulton, who in 1801 successfully built and operated a submarine in France, before turning his inventing talents to the steamboat. Robert Fulton - Nautilus Submarine 1801 Robert Fultons cigar-shaped Nautilus submarine was driven by a hand-cranked propeller when submerged and had a kite-like sail for surface power. The Nautilus submarine was the first submersible to have separate propulsion systems for surfaced and submerged operations. It also carried flasks of compressed air that permitted the two-man crew to remain submerged for five hours. William Bauer - 1850 William Bauer, a German, built a submarine in Kiel in 1850 but met with little success. Bauers first boat sank in 55 feet of water. As his craft was sinking, he opened the flood valves to equalize the pressure inside the submarine so the escape hatch could be opened. Bauer had to convince two terrified seamen that this was the only means of escape. When the water was at chin level, the men were shot to the surface with a bubble of air that blew the hatch open. Bauers simple technique was rediscovered years later and employed in modern submarines escape compartments that operate on the same principle. Continue The Hunley During the American Civil War, Confederate inventor Horace Lawson Hunley converted a steam boiler into a submarine. This Confederate submarine called the could be propelled at four knots by a hand-driven screw. Unfortunately, the submarine sank twice during trials in Charleston, South Carolina. These accidental sinkings in Charleston harbor cost the lives of two crews. In the second accident the submarine was stranded on the bottom and Horace Lawson Hunley himself was asphyxiated with eight other crew members. The Hunley Subsequently, the submarine was raised and renamed the Hunley. In 1864, armed with a 90-pound charge of powder on a long pole, the Hunley attacked and sank a new Federal steam sloop, USS Housatonic, at the entrance to Charleston Harbor. After her successful attack on Housatonic, the Hunley disappeared and her fate remained unknown for 131 years. In 1995 the wreck of the Hunley was located four miles off Sullivans Island, South Carolina. Even though she sank, the Hunley proved that the submarine could be a valuable weapon in time of war. Biography - Horace Lawson Hunley 1823-1863 Horace Lawson Hunley was born in Sumner County, Tennessee, on 29 December 1823. As an adult, he served in the Louisiana State Legislature, practiced law in New Orleans and was a generally notable figure in that area. In 1861, after the start of the American Civil War, Horace Lawson Hunley joined James R. McClintock and Baxter Watson in building the submarine Pioneer, which was scuttled in 1862 to prevent its capture. The three men later constructed two submarines at Mobile, Alabama, the second of which was named H.L. Hunley. This vessel was taken to Charleston, South Carolina, in 1863, where it was to be used to attack blockading Union ships. During a test dive on 15 October 1863, with Horace Lawson Hunley in charge, the submarine failed to surface. All on board, including Horace Lawson Hunley, lost their lives. On 17 February 1864, after it had been raised, refurbished and given a new crew, H.L. Hunley became the first submarine to successfully attack an enemy warship when she sank USS Housatonic off Charleston. Continue The USS Holland John Holland